Purebreeding

Purebreeding is the mating of rams and ewes of the same breed. A purebred flock can be managed as a single flock because all ewes and rams are of the same pure breed. The goal of purebred sheep production should be to supply genetics (seedstock) to the commercial sheep industry. Seedstock are marketed as rams and replacement ewes to other seedstock producers or to commercial sheep operations.
Improvements in purebred sheep should be documented through records. The National Sheep Improvement Program collects performance data from purebred producers and provides them with across-flock EPDs. "EPD" is short for "Expected Progeny Difference." An EPD is an estimate of the genetic merit of an animal for a given trait. Specifically, the EPD of an animal is the expected difference between the performance of that animal's progeny (offspring) and the average progeny performance of all the animals in the breed for that trait. For example, if a lamb has a weaning weight EPD of 2.0 lbs., this means that its progeny will be 2.0 lbs. heavier than the average lamb in the breed. Australia's LAMBPLAN is a similar system for determine genetic worth of a sheep. The show ring generally does a poor job of identifying genetically superior sheep, particularly maternal breeds of sheep whose traits cannot be evaluated by visual appraisal.

Within purebreeding, there are several types of mating systems. Outbreeding is the mating of animals of the same breed but which have no closer relationship than at least 4 to 6 generations. Outbreeding is the recommended breeding practice for most purebred sheep breeders.

Inbreeding is a system of breeding in which closely related animals are mated. This includes sire to daughter, son to dam, and brother to sister. Technically, inbreeding is defined as the mating of animals more closely related than the average relationship within the breed or population concerned. The primary genetic consequence of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of pairing of similar genes.

Inbreeding is essential to the development of prepotent animals — animals that uniformly "stamp" their characteristics on their progeny. Inbreeding may also be used to uncover genes that produce abnormalities or death — genes that, in outbred herds, are generally present in low frequencies. Inbreeding is suggested for only highly qualified operators who are making an effort to stabilize important traits in a given set of animals. In general, inbreeding results in an overall lowering in performance: vigor, disease resistance, reproductive efficiency, and survivability. It also increases the frequency of abnormalities. For example, the spread of spider lamb disease in black-faced sheep is believed to be the consequence of inbreeding.

Linebreeding is a system of breeding in which the degree of relationship is less intense than in inbreeding and is usually directed towards keeping the offspring related to some highly prized ancestor. The degree of relationship is not closer than half-brother half-sister matings or cousin matings, etc. Line breeding is a mild form of inbreeding.


Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding is the mating of rams and ewes of different breed compositions. However, it does not denote indiscriminate mixing of breeds, but rather is a systematic utilization of different breed resources to produce crossbred progeny of a specific type. Crossbreeding is used extensively in the commercial sheep industry and the majority of slaughter lambs are crossbred.
Crossbreeding offers two distinct advantages: 1) heterosis; and 2) breed complementarity. Heterosis or hybrid vigor is the superiority of the crossbred offspring. Mathematically, heterosis is the difference in performance between the crossbred and the average performance of the purebred parent. There are effects of heterosis in the crossbred offspring, crossbred dam, and crossbred ram. In general, crossbred individuals tend to be more vigorous, more fertile and grow faster than purebreds. Effects of heterosis tend to be large for traits that are lowly heritable (e.g. reproduction) and small for traits that are highly heritable (e.g. growth, carcass, and wool). The effects of heterosis are cumulative. Heterosis can be maximized by mating crossbred ewes to a ram of another breed to produce crossbred offspring. Composite breeds such as the Katahdin and Polypay capture most of the benefits of heterosis.

The second major advantage of systematic crossbreeding lies in the ability to utilize breed complementarity. All breeds have strengths and weaknesses. No one breed excels in all relevant traits. Thus, production can be optimized when mating systems place breeds in roles that maximize their strengths and minimize their weaknesses.

Mating Polypay ewes to Suffolk rams is an example of matching complementary strengths of breeds to optimize efficiency of a production system. This cross takes advantage of the reproductive efficiency and moderate maintenance costs of Polypay ewes while producing Suffolk-sired lambs to meet market requirements for fast-growing, heavy muscled lambs. The efficiency of this cross would be much greater than the reciprocal mating of Suffolk ewes to Polypay rams. The latter cross would produce genetically equivalent market lambs (half Suffolk and half Polypay), but fewer lambs would be sold and production costs greatly increased due to higher feed requirements of heavy Suffolk ewes compared to Polypay ewes.

Click HERE to read an article on Crossbreeding Sheep by USDA.

Crossbreeding Systems
There are several systematic crossbreeding systems. Terminal crossing makes maximum use of both heterosis and breed complementarity. It may utilize two, three, or four breeds, and can be as simple as crossing two purebreeds. In terminal crossing, all of the crossbred offspring are sold and replacement ewe lambs must be purchased or produced in the flock by mating a proportion of the flock to rams of the same breed. In a three or four breed terminal crossbreeding system, crossbred ewes and crossbred rams can be utilized in the system to maximize heterosis.

Rotational crossing will also maintain high levels of heterosis. Rotational crossing involves alternating the use of rams of two, three, or more breeds. Ewes are mated to rams of the breed which they are least related. It works best when breeds which function acceptably as both ram and ewe breeds, are utilized.

Roto-terminal crossing involves both terminal crossing to produce market lambs and rotational crossing to produce ewe lambs. The best ewes in the flock would comprise the nucleus flock. They would be used to produce replacement ewes. The rest of the ewes in the flock would be bred to a terminal sire to produce market lambs.

Grading up denotes the repeated crossing of ewes and their female progeny to rams of a single breed, with the ultimate objective of creating a flock that is indistinguishable from purebred flocks of the ram breed. It is used when only rams of the breed of interest are available or affordable.

Crossbreeding is also used to form new or "composite" breeds. Once the crossbred base population has been formed, the flock is managed as a purebred flock. This is how many new breeds are created.

Many of the aforementioned crossbreeding systems are difficult to accomplish in a small flock, which may only have the option of one or two breeding groups. The purchase of replacement females would enable the use of a terminal crossing program. Alternating the use of ram and ewe breeds would maintain maternal and growth characteristics in the flock.

Maryland Small Ruminant

The Maryland Small Ruminant Page [sheepandgoat.com] is celebrating its 10th anniversary. The web site was established in 1998 to provide information to sheep and goat producers and anyone else interested in sheep and goat production and marketing. The web site includes original documents and images (by the author) as well as a comprehensive list of links pertaining to small ruminants. It is maintained by Susan Schoenian, Sheep and Goat Specialist at the University of Maryland's Western Maryland Research & Education Center in Keedysville, Maryland. Susan has been with University of Maryland Cooperative Extension since 1988. She holds B.S. and M.S. degrees in Animal Science from Virginia Tech and Montana State University, respectively, and also attended The Ohio State University. Susan conducts the Western Maryland Pasture-Based Meat Goat Performance Test at her research facility. She raises Katahdin hair (meat) sheep on her small farm called The Baalands in Clear Spring, Maryland. Please direct all questions, comments, or suggestions to Susan at sschoen@umd.edu.

Visit my other web sites:
Sheep 101 and 201, My Flickr™ sheep and goat images, SheepGoatMarketing.info,
Shepherd's Notebook Blog, and Western Maryland Pasture-Based Meat Goat Performance Test Blog

PRODUCTION TESTING

The number of dairy goat herds has greatly increased in the United States in past years. This has brought increased needs for accurate production and management information.

The National Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement Program (NCDHIP) is a production-testing and information-gathering system that provides important information for management, breed and pedigree work, genetic evaluations, education and research. The program was developed primarily for dairy cattle, but dairy goat owners also are using the program. However, the number of dairy goats participating in the Dairy Herd Improvement Program is still limited. Participation is sometimes difficult because: 1)Goat herds tend to have few animals; therefore, the cost of testing goats may be high when compared with their earning capability. 2) Participating goat owners are asked to abide by official Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI) and Dairy Herd Improvement Registry (DHIR)rules, and their breed registry organization's rules; for example, the American Dairy Goat Association (ADGA) and the American Goat Society(AGS). 3)Goat owners may be located in areas not readily served by a Dairy Herd Improvement Association (DHIA), or the DHIA may have bylaw restrictions on dairy goats. 4)Goats are seasonal breeders, so there may be a period during the year when all does in the herd are dry at the same time; although the herd is to be on test the year around, whether does are milking or are dry.

There are several ways to obtain official production-testing information that is acceptable to the breed registry organizations,breed registry programs, and DHI programs. There are also other production-testing programs for obtaining unofficial production data for herd management. Such records are not acceptable to the dairy goat breed registry organizations because of their unofficial status.

Official Production-Testing Programs. The One-Day Test is a dairy goat breed registry program and has its own rules and procedures. These tests, usually held during local fairs or special goat shows, provide opportunity for does to earn ''star'' recognition. Arrangements must be made, in advance, with the dairy goat breed registry organizations and the local DHIA. The One-Day Test is conducted by a local DHIA supervisor, and there is a special charge. For information and rules concerning the One-Day Test, contact your dairy goat breed registry organization. This test is not part of the DHI program.

The DHI program is a cooperative education and research project between a state's land grant university and the dairy industry. Dairymen through local, state, and national DHIA's carry out the business, operation, and service responsibilities of the testing program. To be eligible to participate in the official testing programs of NCDHIP, one must be a member of a local or state DHIA. Official records are those that are verifiable as having been made in accordance with the National Official DHI Rules, the combined rules for DHIR, and policies approved by the Policy Board for NCDHIP. In some instances, a local DHIA may not be able to accept dairy goat owners as members in a cow-testing organization because of limitations in their bylaws. Some may agree, on the other hand, to provide this official testing service on a contract basis to nonmember dairy goat owners.

Dairy goat owners may apply for membership in a local or county DHIA. When membership is approved, the local DHIA will send a supervisor once a month to weigh, sample, and test each doe's milk for yield and butterfat. The supervisor also gathers the necessary management information from the herd owner, then fills out and mails the completed sheets to a dairy record processing computer center.

The DHIA member may choose between several official and unofficial testing programs, but will be required to pay local, state, and national DHIA and breed organization fees, as appropriate, in addition to service fees for electronic data processing.

A permit to test DHIR must be obtained from the breed registry organization. All official records must comply with national official DHI and DHIR rules, dairy goat breed registry organization rules, and rules established by local, state, and national DHIA's.

Should one be in an area without the services of a local DHIA, or if the local DHIA is unable to provide testing services to dairy goat owners, it is possible to form a dairy goat DHIA separate from the local cow DHIA. ++++MISSING DATA++++

The Group Test (GT) program has been approved for official types of testing programs by the National Policy Board for NCDHIP and the. National Sub-Group for Dairy Goats and is now operational in some state and local DHIA's.

The GT is not a ''type'' of testing program, but a procedure for conducting official types of testing programs. The GT enables DHIA-member dairy goat owners to participate in the official DHI and DHIR programs by allowing each group member to perform supervisor (test) responsibilities by testing herds of other group members. Group testing results in lower costs for production testing. In addition to fulfilling the requirements for official DHI and DHIR tests, GT members must also abide by special GT rules approved by the National Policy Board for NCDHIP. Each member of the test group is trained to perform supervisor responsibilities when weighing and sampling milk in the herds of other GT members. The milk sample is taken to the official DHIA supervisor or lab, the fat test is performed and the test sheets are forwarded to the dairy record processing computer center. To participate in the DHIR GT program, one must obtain a ''permit to test DHIR'' from the breed registry organization and be enrolled in the official program with the local or state DHIA. All official group testing is conducted under the jurisdiction and supervision of a local DHIA and the state extension dairyman.

Unofficial Production-Testing Programs. Several other production-testing programs may be provided by the local DHIA to meet individual needs for management. These do not have stringent rules. It should be recognized that un official production-testing programs provide valuable data for use in herd management, but because the conditions under which the records are made cannot be verified, they are not accepted by the industry or the breed registry organization officially.

The Commercial Test is performed by the DHIA supervisor, but compliance with official rules is not required. It is basically the same type of service that is provided in the official DHI testing program. There is usually no savings in cost for the commercial test compared with an official DHI test.

The Owner-Sampler Test has responsibilities shared by the owner and the DHIA supervisor. The owner weighs the milk, takes the sample, and records the data. The fat test is performed by the DHIA supervisor or lab. The cost of this test is usually less than other testing programs, because the owners do most of the work themselves.

The DHIA may take other types of tests available to dairy goat owners to meet their specific needs. These programs are also unofficial and not acceptable to the industry or the breed registry organization,however, provide valuable information for herd manaement.

Starting a Group Test Program. Timing is important in planning. If dairy goats begin freshening after the first of January, it is recommended that program planning and training take place in October, November, and December. This allows time to form the GT unit and to begin operation as soon as the goats start freshening.

The local DHIA board of directors must approve the local GT program. The local farm advisor or extension agent should explain the basic concepts to the test group. The DHIA board should ++++MISSING DATA++++

There must be a group leader in charge. The group leader must attend the DHI supervisor training sessions and help train group members in testing and getting samples to the central laboratory for component testing. Where required, group leaders are trained as DHI supervisors and are licensed. They may conduct tests on member herds outside the group when hired to do so by the DHIA.

Duties of the group leader usually are not burdensome; however, to see that the testing program is conducted as planned and complies with all rules and policies, the leader must work closely with the DHIA supervisor and dairy farm advisor or extension agent.

Problems within the group should first go to the leader for solution. If the leader cannot resolve the problems, the leader should then take them to any or all of the following people in this order:
DHIA supervisor, DHIA board of directors, dairy farm advisor,
extension agent and/or state extension dairyman. The leader acts as
liaison among these groups.

A special training program for all members of the test group must be held before herd testing begins. Training should be conducted by any or all of the following people: DHIA supervisor, dairy farm advisor,extension agent and/or state extension dairyman.

Items to consider in planning: 1) procedures for weighing and sampling milk; 2)animal identification; 3)recording management information; 4) handling samples; 5)supervisors' responsibilities; 6) herd owners' responsibilities; 7) delivering samples for butterfat, protein, and; 8)somatic cell testing; 9)herd information required; 10) services available for goat herds; 11)computer programs; 12)what to do when all animals are dry; 13)official rules and policies; 14)using production-testing information; 15)equipment maintenance; 16)cost assessment of testing and bill collection; 17)roles, responsibilities, and relationships of group members; 18)testing schedules; 19)ethics

The group may want to impose additional rules or guidelines for its members. The adoption of such rules should be by a majority vote of the GT members. These rules must not conflict with official rules of DHIA.

The group members should fully understand that the success of the program is up to each individual member. There can be no shortcuts in the operation of the program. Records must be kept in good order so that any question can be verified. Failure to abide by the rules will jeopardize the GT program and its production records.

National DHI Rules for Group Test. All GT herds must follow the national DHI and DHIR rules for official test. These rules are available from the local DHIA, dairy
farm advisor or extension agent. The following additional rules for GT are required.
1. A minimum of four herds in any single test group (under some
exceptional circumstances, states may approve groups with three
members).
2. Only those dairy goat owners attending a special training program
supervised by the state extension dairyman are permitted to participate
in ++++MISSING DATA++++

Surprise Testing Requirements for DHIR. All official DHI and DHIR herds are subject to surprise tests (check tests). A surprise test is designed to verify the authenticity of production, identification, and other details. The surprise test is unannounced and includes a preliminary milking preceding the 24-hour milking period being verified. A surprise test is conducted by a DHIA supervisor or by a qualified group leader for herds participating in the GT program.

The state extension dairyman for NCDHIP shall arrange for surprise tests when:
1. Data and information available indicate rules may have been
violated to the extent that regular supervision would not give a true
test of the herd or any individuals in the herd.
2. Requested to do so by the Superintendent of Official Testing,
the American Dairy Goat Association or the American Goat Society.
3. The following requirements are met:
-if an individual doe record, after 90 days, is projected on an
actual basis to be at least 3000 pounds milk and/or 105 pounds butterfat
-on a Mature Equivalent (ME) basis, after 90 days, the projected
record is 3500 pounds milk and/or 125 pounds buttermilk
-on a ME basis, after 180 days, the projection is 4000 pounds milk
and/or 140 pounds butterfat

Value of Production Testing.Information from GT, DHI, DHIR or other similar programs has important direct benefits for herd management and long range genetic progeny testing benefits for buck and elite doe selection, contracts, sales and breed improvements. Participating goat owners receive monthly computer printed reports for:each milking doe, total herd, annual and decade progress, merit of bucks used against others, available in the area, completed and projected records,cost accounting, and returns over feed,costs,income returns of individual herd members, animal kidding intervals, average age of first milkers, average age of all milkers, rate of roughage and concentrate, feeding in relation to requirement,reproduction and health records

Production-testing through the GT program provides the dairy goat owner with valuable herd management information for the improvement of his/her herd, which benefits the whole industry in the long run.

http://www.ansci.umn.edu/poultry/resources/manure.htm#nutrients

Manure Management

Home Soil Testing: Taking a Sample

http://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-0006-A/

Nutrient Management Programs For Georgia Poultry Growers

Dr. Dan L. Cunningham and Dr. Casey W. Ritz
Department of Poultry Science

The need to ensure that concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are not contributing to water quality issues in the United States has led many states to develop nutrient management plans (NMPs) for their livestock producers. These NMPs have been implemented through either voluntary participation or through mandated state regulations. Some states, such as Georgia, have used combinations of these two approaches.

NMPs are essentially best management practices for appropriate handling, storage and application of animal manures when used as organic fertilizers. The benefits of such programs are the continued protection of the state's surface and ground waters and the enhancement of the economic value of this organic fertilizer through the most efficient use of the contained nutrients.

Georgia's Response to NMPs
Georgia has responded to the need for poultry NMPs by developing and implementing two distinctly different nutrient management programs: Georgia's Voluntary Nutrient Management Program and State Rule 391-3-6, Animal (Non-Swine) Feeding Operations program. The two plans differ in that the first is directed to all poultry producers in Georgia regardless of the type of manure being managed and is dependent on voluntary compliance. The second is directed specifically to poultry producers with liquid manure systems and/or continuous overflow watering systems and is mandated by state rule. Poultry producers need to understand the differences between these two programs as well as the importance and implications of compliance with these programs.

The Voluntary Program
History of the Program. The Department of Poultry Science at the University of Georgia and the Georgia Poultry Federation began working collaboratively to develop nutrient management plans for Georgia's poultry producers in 1994. At that time, poultry industry representatives and members of the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences realized the importance of establishing and documenting uniform methods to apply poultry manures to the soil through an aggressive and pro-active voluntary program. To achieve these objectives, a task force was created involving members of the Georgia Poultry Federation; UGA faculty from the departments of Poultry Science, Biological and Agricultural Engineering, and Crop and Soil Sciences; and representatives from the Natural Resource Conservation Service.

As a result of the work of this task force, educational materials (NMP manuals and slide sets) were developed specifically for poultry producers to assist in the education and implementation of the voluntary program. These training materials contain sections related to the key components necessary for developing a farm-based nutrient management program.

Components of an NMP. The important aspects of NMP development covered in the voluntary program training manuals and the educational programs are:

Applicable federal and state regulations
Procedures for soil and litter analysis
Nutrient budgets and worksheets
Documentation of the plan (records)
Application and storage methods
Practices for preventing soil erosion
Methods for dead bird disposal
In August of 1999, the Board of Directors of the Georgia Poultry Federation passed a resolution approving the policy of providing all poultry growers in Georgia training related to the voluntary NMP program. This resolution also established the goal of having all poultry producers implementing NMPs by January, 2002.

Achievements of the Voluntary Program. Beginning in September, 1999, faculty in the departments of Poultry Science and Crop and Soil Sciences began conducting educational programs in conjunction with county extension agents across the state. By the end of 2001, more than 3,800 poultry producers had participated in these educational sessions and were issued certificates of NMP training. In addition, the Georgia Poultry Federation secured state funding to offset the cost of litter analysis needed for completion of an NMP. As a result of these programs, more than 4,000 litter samples were submitted to the University of Georgia Services Lab for analysis between the fall of 1999 and the end of 2002. Estimates are that these samples represented more than 75 percent of the poultry farms in Georgia and likely represent a higher percentage of the farms applying litter. Because of the voluntary nature of this program, we do not know exactly how many farms have fully completed the voluntary NMP program. Informal surveys, however, suggest that a high percentage of Georgia growers are complying with the voluntary approach.

These voluntary programs have provided uni-form manure management practices across Georgia and have been very instrumental in keeping state mandated programs to a minimum. Because of the awareness of the need to protect the environment, NMPs will continue to be very important in the future. Growers are encouraged to continue their participation in the voluntary program even though they may not be required to do so by the state.

Animal (Non-Swine) Feeding Operations Program
In June, 2001, the Department of Natural Resources Board approved the Georgia Environmental Protection Division's Animal (Non-Swine) Feeding Operators Rule 391-3-6. This rule requires poultry producers with liquid manure handling systems or continuous overflow watering systems to be permitted. The permits required under this rule are the Land Application System (LAS) and the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. To obtain these permits, producers must complete a comprehensive nutrient management plan and certified operator training.

Poultry Operations Requiring LAS Permitting. The LAS permit is required for poultry operators in the following categories:

9,000 laying hens or broilers with liquid manure handling systems.
30,000 laying hens or broilers if the facility has continuous overflow watering system.
16,000 turkeys.
1,500 ducks
Poultry Operations Requiring NPDES Permitting. The NPDES permit is required for poultry operators in the following categories:

30,000 laying hens or broilers with liquid manure handling systems.
100,000 laying hens or broilers with continuous overflow watering systems.
55,000 turkeys.
5,000 ducks.
With the passage of EPD's Animal (Non-Swine) Feeding Operations rule, the Georgia Department of Agriculture adopted their Animal Feeding Operators Training and Certification Rule 40-16-5 in June of 2001. The rule provides for certification training required to meet the Georgia Environmental Protection Division's AFO/CAFO permitting rule. Training requires 1½ days of classroom instruction followed by a written examination. A minimum score of 70 percent on the exam is necessary for certification. In addition, the rule requires 4 hours of continuing education every 2 years.

By definition, Georgia's Animal (Non-Swine) Feeding Operations Rule exempts dry manure poultry operations from the mandatory program. This exemption, however, will change for some dry manure poultry operators in the near future.

EPA's New CAFO Regulations
In 2001, Georgia's EPD did not include dry manure poultry operations in their AFO rule. This was partly a result of the implementation of the voluntary program and partly due to the fact that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was expected to release a new version of their CAFO rule in 2002 that would address dry manure operations. In December of 2002, EPA unveiled to the states their "new" CAFO rule, which simplified and clarified the existing rule. This new rule includes some dry manure poultry operations and will require some amendments to the current Georgia rules. States must adopt rules that are at least equal to the federal rules. States do, however, have the option of adopting rules that are more stringent than the federal rules if necessary for protection of the environment. Georgia will be considering amendments of its AFO/ CAFO rules in 2003.

New Requirements for Poultry. Several of the components of EPA's new CAFO rules have implications for poultry producers.

Large poultry operations will be required to have NPDES permits regardless of the type of manure handled. Large poultry operations are defined as operations with:
125,000 or more broilers
82,000 or more laying hens
55,000 or more turkeys
NMPs will be required to include phosphorous risk assessments.
Setbacks of 100 feet from surface water and wells required for application of manures unless a 35-foot vegetative buffer is used.
Large CAFOs will be required to keep records of manure transfers.
Large CAFOs will be required to report annually to the permitting authority.
What Is Not Required. EPA dropped a number of proposed requirements from their final rule. Some of the more significant requirements dropped are:

No mandatory national co-permitting requirements.
No requirement that NMPs have to be prepared by a certified planner.
No NMP certification of manure recipients by sellers of poultry litter.
No requirements on when manure may be applied to frozen or saturated land.
No mandatory national ground water testing requirements.
Georgia's EPD must now consider the new EPA CAFO regulations and decide on what action needs to be taken in Georgia to comply with the new regulations. The state can either decide to go with the new regulations as finalized by EPA, or Georgia can decide to enact more stringent rules. Much of this decision may well depend on how effective and successful the voluntary program is perceived to be. It is imperative that Georgia poultry producers continue to develop and implement NMPs. The voluntary NMP program will serve as a solid basis of permitting for those individuals requiring the NPDES or LAS permits and, in addition, will provide continued assurance of environmentally sound programs for those poultry producers not subject to a state rule program.

Should you need assistance in developing an NMP or if you need more information on Georgia's poultry nutrient management plans, contact your local Cooperative Extension office or the departments of Poultry Science and Biological and Agricultural Engineering, the University of Georgia. Information on developing poultry NMPs can be found on the Department of Poultry Science web page

www.department.caes.uga.edu/poultry/

Information on regulated CNMPs is also available on the AWARE web page:

www.engr.uga.edu/service/aware

Bulletin 1226/March, 2003

The University of Georgia and Ft. Valley State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and counties of the state cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service, the University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences offers educational programs, assistance and materials to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, age, sex or disability.

An Equal Opportunity Employer/Affirmative Action Organization Committed to a Diverse Work Force

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating.

Gale A. Buchanan, Dean and Director

Well Management Nitrate in Well Water

Introduction
Nitrate is a common contaminant found in many wells in Minnesota. Too much nitrate in drinking water can cause serious health problems for young infants. This page provides a basic explanation of nitrate in wells and gives steps that you as a well owner can take to protect your family and visitors from illness.

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What is nitrate?
Nitrate (NO3) is a naturally occurring chemical made of nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrate is found in air, soil, water, and plants. Much of the nitrate in our environment comes from decomposition of plants and animal wastes. People also add nitrate to the environment in the form of fertilizers.

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How does nitrate get into well water?
Natural levels of nitrate in Minnesota groundwater are usually quite low (less than 1 milligram per liter [mg/L] of nitrate-nitrogen). However, where sources of nitrate such as fertilizers, animal wastes, or human sewage are concentrated near the ground surface, nitrate may seep down and contaminate the groundwater. Elevated nitrate levels in groundwater are often caused by run-off from barnyards or feedlots, excessive use of fertilizers, or septic systems.

Wells most vulnerable to nitrate contamination include shallow wells, dug wells with casing which is not watertight, and wells with damaged, leaking casing or fittings.

Nitrate contamination of a well is often regarded as a first sign of deteriorating groundwater quality.

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What are the health risks of nitrate in well water?
Too much nitrate in drinking water poses a risk to infants under six months of age. If an infant is fed water or formula made with water that is high in nitrate, a condition called "blue baby syndrome" (or "methemoglobinemia") can develop. Bacteria which are present in an infant's digestive system can convert nitrate to nitrite (NO2), a chemical which can interfere with the ability of the infant's blood to carry oxygen. As the condition worsens, the baby's skin turns a bluish color, particularly around the eyes and mouth. If nitrate levels in the water are high enough and prompt medical attention is not received, death can result.

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Why are young infants more susceptible?
As an infant ages, its stomach acidity increases, reducing the numbers of nitrite-producing bacteria. After six months, the conversion of nitrate to nitrite in the stomach no longer occurs. Most adults can consume large amounts of nitrate with no ill affects. In fact, the average adult in the U.S. consumes about 20-25 milligrams of nitrate-nitrogen every day in food, largely from vegetables.

Pregnant women, people with reduced stomach acidity, and people with certain blood disorders may also be susceptible to nitrate-induced methemoglobinemia. Some research has suggested that nitrate may also play a role in the development of some cancers. However, at this time there is no clear evidence that nitrate ingestion results in an increased cancer risk.

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How much nitrate is too much?
The state Health Risk Limit for nitrate is 10 mg/L of nitrate-nitrogen, which provides newborns with reasonable protection against blue baby syndrome. This level is mandatory for all public water systems, and recommended for private wells.

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How do I know if my well water has nitrate?
Nitrate is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. To find out if there is nitrate in your water, have it tested by a laboratory that is certified for nitrate testing by the Minnesota Department of Health. Laboratories will provide sampling bottles and instructions. The price for the test typically ranges from $7 to $25. Visit the MDH - Certified Environmental Contract Laboratories web site for all your water testing needs. Regardless of which tests you want done, always make sure to use a laboratory that has been certified to perform each of those particular tests. Testing for nitrate look for “SDWP Inorg.”

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How often should I have my well tested for nitrate?
It's a good idea to have a routine nitrate test every two or three years, more frequently if nitrate has been detected in previous sampling. State regulations require well contractors to have a water sample tested for bacteria and nitrate when they construct a new well. After that, owners of private wells must arrange for their own water testing.

You should also have your water tested for nitrate if you are a woman planning on becoming pregnant or if infants will be using the water.

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What if nitrate is found in my water?
If the nitrate-nitrogen concentration exceeds the health limit of 10 mg/L, do not give the water to any infant under six months of age, either directly or in formula. Infants should be provided with water from a source which has been tested and shown to be low in nitrate and bacterially safe. Commercially bottled water is required to meet the nitrate standard and can be given to infants.
Do not boil to "treat" high nitrate water. Nitrate is not removed from the water by boiling. Boiling actually concentrates the nitrate, due to evaporation of the water.
Have your well inspected. It's a good idea to have your well inspected by a licensed well contractor if the well is old, or you do not know if it is structurally sound. Nitrate and bacteria problems are sometimes caused by structural flaws which allow contaminated surface water to enter the well. Repairing the well or constructing a new, deeper well often results in a results in a significant reduction in the nitrate level. To find licensed well drillers in your area, look in the Yellow Pages under "Well Drilling and Service."
Identify and remove sources of nitrate near the well. Fertilizers, animal wastes, and sewage systems should be located and managed so that they do not contaminate the well. If a nitrate source is too close to the well and cannot be moved, then you may need to consider having the well permanently sealed and replaced by a licensed well contractor.
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What about a water treatment unit?
Home water treatment units are not recommended for treating high nitrate water which will be given to infants. There is no foolproof way of knowing when the treatment system may fail, and blue baby syndrome has been known to occur after just one day of exposure to high nitrate water.

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Should I test my well for anything other than nitrate?
Yes. Private wells should be tested at least once a year for bacterial safety. It is also wise to test well water for bacteria any time the water changes in taste, odor, or appearance. See also: Bacterial Safety of Well Water.

In addition, water can absorb lead from old lead pipes, lead-soldered copper pipes, or brass plumbing components, when the water stands idle in the pipes for more than a few hours. It is recommended to either flush standing water until you feel the water get colder (usually 30-60 seconds), or have your water tested for lead after it has been standing in the pipes at least six hours. Also, never use water from hot water faucets for drinking or cooking. See also: Lead in Well Water Systems.

Arsenic occurs naturally in about half the wells in Minnesota, and about 15 percent of wells produce water which exceeds 10 micrograms per liter (parts per billion), the federal drinking water standard. Arsenic is more prevalent in western Minnesota, but can occur almost anywhere in the state (see map on arsenic occurrence ). Long-term consumption of arsenic above the drinking water standard may increase the risk of health problems of the skin, circulatory system, nervous system, lungs, and bladder, including some forms of cancer. Every private well should be tested at least once or twice to determine if arsenic is present in the water. See also: Arsenic in Well Water.

Other contaminants sometimes occur in private water systems, but much less frequently than bacteria, nitrate, arsenic, or lead. If the well is located close to fuel tanks or to a commercial or industrial area, a test for "volatile organic chemicals" (VOCs) is a good idea. A brochure, VOCs, is available from the MDH. Agricultural chemicals are sometimes found in wells located near cropped fields or handling areas for agricultural chemicals. Shallow wells are more vulnerable to pesticide contamination than are deep wells. If your well is located in an agricultural area, and especially if it is a shallow well, testing for several of the pesticides most commonly used in the area may be warranted.

If children or adolescents are drinking the water, a test for natural levels of fluoride will give your dentist useful information when considering fluoride supplements. A small number of wells in Minnesota (primarily northeastern Minnesota) do exceed the health standard for fluoride.

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Where can I get more information or help?
If you have any questions about wells or well water quality in Minnesota contact your local Minnesota Department of Health office, and ask to talk with a well specialist or contact the Well Management Section Central Office at wells@health.state.mn.us or by telephone at 651-201-4600 or 800-383-9808. Deaf and hard-of-hearing: TTY 651-201-5797.